PART I

INTRODUCTION

A. GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES

            Egypt is located at the northeastern corner of Africa and the western extension of Asia (the Sinai Peninsula). It is also part of the Mediterranean Basin (ca. 1200 km of coastal front), and embraces two biogeographical corridors which link the tropics in the south with the palearctics in the north: the Red Sea connects the tropical seas of the Indian Ocean with the temperate Mediterranean, and the River Nile links equatorial Africa with the Mediterranean Basin.  The Red Sea and the Nile Basin are two principal highways along the migratory routes of the palearctic-tropics journey of birds, and the Mediterranean wetlands of Egypt (northern lakes: Bardaweel, Manzala, Burullus, Idku and Mariut) are vital resting stations. They are internationally important sites within the framework of the Wetland Convention (Ramsar, 1971) and the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Animals (Bonn, 1979).

            This geographical position of Egypt has had an indelible impression on the ethnology of inhabitants and on the geographical affinities of its biota. To this we add that the history of the climate in the Quaternary  which included alternating periods of rain and drought (pluvials and interpluvials), and that the  history of the River Nile (which acquired its present form and hydrological rhythm only recently - about 10000-20000 years ago) was complex.     

            Egypt is part of the Sahara of North Africa. It has an area of about one million square kilometers, divided into a western part comprising the Western Desert (681000 km²), an eastern part comprising the Eastern Desert (223000 km²) and the Sinai Peninsula (61000 km²).  The Nile Basin comprises the valley in the south (Upper Egypt) and the Delta in the north (Lower Egypt), and forms a riparian oasis (40000 km²); this is the densely inhabited farmlands of Egypt.   

            The climate of Egypt is that of the Arid Mediterranean region, with notable differences between the coastal and inland parts of the country. According to the system applied in the UNESCO map of the world distribution of arid regions (which takes into consideration the degree of aridity, the mean temperature of the coldest and the hottest months of the year and the time of the rainy period relative to the temperature regime) , four major bioclimatic provinces are recognized:

            (i) the hyperarid province with mild winter and hot summer (mean temperature of the hottest months is 20^o - 30^o C) includes the Eastern Desert (the area between Lat. 22^o N. and Lat. 30^o N., except the coastal mountains along the Gulf of Suez) and the southern parts of the Western Desert.  Rain is extremely scarce and several years may pass without rain;

            (ii)  the hyperarid province with a cool winter (mean temperature of the coldest months  is 0^o - 10^o C) and a hot summer. It includes the mountainous massif of Southern Sinai. Rainfall is less than 30 mm/yr, occasional and unpredictable;

            (iii) the coastal belt falling under the maritime influence of the Mediterranean Sea. It extends between Rafah and Sallum where the annual rainfall is more than 100 mm (250 mm at Rafah and 150 mm at Alexandria) and the dry period is relatively short (attenuated); and

            (iv) the sub-coastal belt where annual rainfall ranges between 30-100 mm coupled with a mild winter and a hot summer; the dry period is relatively long (accentuated).

DEMOGRAPHY

            Egypt comprises a principal riverine oasis associated with the Nile Valley and the Delta. The inhabited area, which includes irrigated farmlands, is about 4% of the total area of Egypt: almost 99% of the population dwell in an area of only 42000 km², where the population density is 1170/km². The rest of the country (deserts) is thinly populated. Furthermore, the population increases at remarkably high rates as can be seen in the following statistics:

In the rainy eras (the last of which was between 5000 and 2500 BC) human settlements were spread across the area between the Red Sea and the Libyan borders. But when the climate became arid settlements moved towards the sources of water in the Nile Valley and oases and along the northern coast. Nowadays, the distribution of the population is also highly uneven.  Egypt is divided into 26 Governorates, of which 21 are in the Nile Valley, the Delta and the adjoining territories, while the remaining 5 are in the desert (1 in the Eastern Desert and 2 in each of the Western Desert and Sinai). In the former group (only 4% of the area of Egypt) live 47690000 persons, while in 5 desert governorates (96% of Egypt) live only 564000 persons (1986 figures). Human impact on the environment and its limited natural resources extends over thousands of years, at present the problems of encroachment of urban settlements on farmland and desertification are looming very large. The main consequences of such problems are the continual loss of agricultural areas and the decrease of these areas per person of the population.

RENEWABLE  NATURAL  RESOURCES

            The renewable resources of farmlands and water (agriculture) are limited. Agricultural land is c. 7 million feddans (acres) and freshwater resources are about 60 billion m³. With the increase of the population, farmland per person decreased from 0.22 feddans (924 m²) in 1960 to about 0.12 feddans (504 m²) in 1984, and the freshwater annual share dropped from 2000 m³ to 1200 m³ per person during the same period. This underlines the special significance of measures to conserve and sustainably use these limited natural resources. For irrigated agriculture the farming system tends to reclaim new land. The 1990-2000 development plans aspire to reclaim 100-150 thousand feddans of new land every year. These ambitious plans of land reclamation will depend on re-use of water and the change from traditional irrigation by flooding to sprinkle and drip irrigation, especially in the newly reclaimed lands. The two major projects of El-Salam Canal in Sinai and Toshki Canal in the Western Desert aim at adding 600000 and 500000 feddans respectively to agricultural lands.

            Limited rain-fed agriculture prevails in the Mediterranean coastal belt where the annual rainfall is 150-200 mm. In years of relatively high rainfall barley and wheat are cultivated in flat areas, while olive and fig trees are grown in runoff-collecting sites. In the subcoastal arid belt (rainfall 100 mm/yr), natural vegetation provides grazing sites for livestock (mainly sheep and goats).

            Fisheries prevail along the coasts of the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, the northern lakes, the inland lakes (Qaroun, Wadi Rayyan, Nasser), and the River Nile and its associated irrigation networks. Aquaculture and mariculture are on the increase and use both local and introduced species of fish.

            Wild animals (gazelles and antelopes), and resident and migratory game birds are under pressures of excessive hunting. This is one of the major causes of deterioration and sometimes complete loss of wildlife.

            Natural vegetation, though often thin and widely dispersed, provides the desert inhabitants with resources of considerable importance: fuel for their consumption and charcoal and medicinal herbs as cash crops. Excessive collection is a cause of deterioration of the vegetation and the loss of species.

            During the last 2 centuries, Egypt has introduced a number of crop plants (including cotton) which now form the backbone of agriculture. These imports brought with them a number of exotic weeds which became naturalized as well as a number of other pests. Almost all the trees and shrubs grown in city streets, country roads and in public and private gardens are introduced. The last three decades have also witnessed the introduction of numerous cultivars of fruit and vegetable crops and animal races  including fish and chicken. Production of these new introductions has been increasing steadily, with negative implications for the neglected local breeds, some of which have been badly degraded while others have disappeared.

NON-RENEWABLE  NATURAL  RESOURCES

            The groundwater resources of the deserts of Egypt are mostly fossil water stored since the rainy periods and are used in irrigating arable lands of the oases of the Western Desert and to a limited extent in Sinai. Development of Nubia Sandstone aquifers in southern parts of the Western Desert includes: the East Oweinat programme and the Darb El-Arbaeen (extention of the Toshki irrigation scheme) programme.

            Prospecting and exploitation of oil resources in Egypt date back to the beginnings of the 20th century. Extensive Egyptian and international efforts are being made to explore and develop additional oil resources in all parts of the country.  Large reserves of natural gas have already been found (in the Delta and the Gulf of Suez) and are being developed. Coal deposits are recorded in a few sites in Sinai, of which the one at El-Maghara is being developed.

            Mineral deposits including gold, copper, gemstones and others were known and exploited in ancient Egypt together with building stones of various kinds. Other mineral sources recorded in Egypt include tin, tungsten, lead, zinc, nickel, chrome, iron, titanium, talc, barite, asbestos, magnesium, graphite, phosphate, marble, alabaster and other building material.  

B. CONSERVATION  OF  NATURAL  RESOURCES

            Egypt has been among the pioneer countries to take an active interest in the conservation of biodiversity and the preservation of natural resources and heritage. In 1936, Egypt became party to the "Convention Relative to the Preservation of Fauna and Flora in their Natural State", London 1933. This was later followed by signing and ratifying conventions and agreements pertaining to the various aspects of biodiversity conservation, such as "The Agreement for the Establishment of a General Fisheries Council for the Mediterranean Sea" in February 1952, "The Agreement for the Establishment of a Commission for Controlling the Desert Locust in the Near East" in 1972, and "The African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources" in 1969, "The International Convention on the Protection of Cultural and Natural Heritage" (Paris, 1972), "The Convention on Trading in Endangered Species of Wild Animals" (Washington, 1975), "The Convention on Conservation of Migratory Animals" (Bonn, 1979), and "The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat" (also known as the Ramsar Convention, in 1986).

            Furthermore, Egypt welcomed the World Conservation Strategy formulated jointly by IUCN, WWF and UNEP in 1980. The National Committee of IUCN in collaboration with the Academy of Scientific Research and Technology put forward a "Draft National Strategy for the Conservation of Natural Heritage in Egypt". However,  implementation of this draft strategy has not been possible for various political and socio-economic reasons.

            In the field of environmental legislation, Egypt has introduced a number of laws concerning the conservation of plant and animal life. The Ministry of Agriculture was empowered to put these laws into effect and to follow up their implementation. To achieve this objective, the Ministry of Agriculture set up the Egyptian Wildlife Service (an authority for the protection of nature).    

            In 1983, Law 102 was enacted and it set up the legal framework for the declaration and management of protected areas. To secure a suitable source of funding for the protected areas, Law 101 for 1985 was enacted; it levies an additional tax on aeroplane tickets issued locally, income to finance programmes for  developing tourism and environmental protection. This was later followed by Law 4 for 1994 in which article 28 regulates the  hunting of wild animals and prohibits the destruction of their natural habitats; article 84 of this law sets forth the penal code for illegal hunting. In 1989 the NBU has completed a detailed and comprehensive study on the control of hunting practices.

            In 1992, Egypt signed the Biodiversity Convention. Ratification of this Convention has been completed in 1994. In article 6, this Convention required the parties to formulate national strategies setting framework for the conservation of biodiversity. A national strategy for biodiversity conservation should define the goals, the guiding principles and the national plan of action. The policy-making body entrusted with the task of biodiversity conservation is the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA). Formulation of the national strategy should be a democratic process. Therefore, the EEAA has invited a number of governmental  scientific establishments as well as interested NGO's to participate in this process so that the outcome would be collaborative and agreed upon. In this way each sector of the society should adopt the national strategy and take part in its implementation.

            In order to achieve this wide participation, scientists, representatives of local administration and NGO's have been invited to 15 one-day sessions of extensive discussion hosted by Egyptian universities in different parts of the country.

            For the national strategy to be comprehensive and applicable, it should cover the following components:

            As regards the habitat diversity, conservation programmes concentrate on the selection of habitats with relatively high richness in biodiversity,  those  harbouring species of plants and animals with special interest ( endemics, rare, endangered or extinct), or those with natural formations (geological or geomorphological) with special scientific, cultural or aesthetic value. Ecosystems subject to severe and irreversible modification as a result of development programmes and exploitation of resources also feature high on the list of habitat types eligible for conservation.

            In programmes of conservation of species diversity, priority is given to endemics and near endemics as well as to:

             Conservation programmes also give priority to species with a wide range of morphological and/or physiological plasticity (i.e. a relatively large number of biotypes), and to species with a wide range of ecological plasticity (i.e. a relatively large number of ecotypes), as well as those with other features which might suggest the presence of special genes or genomes in them.  This also includes the conservation of cultivars and races which had a significant role to play in agriculture and animal production and still store a useful genetic make-up but have been replaced by other varieties and races in the wake of the green revolution. Conservation of such cultivars and races is the work of the gene bank. In this connection, special mention should be made of the multitude of cultivars and races of some crops (e.g. cotton, wheat, rice, dates, etc.) and farm animals (cattle, chicken, goats and sheep).

C. THE  PRESENT  SITUATION

            Article 8 of the Biodiversity Convention urges the contracting parties to establish and manage their own systems of protected areas mainly for: (i) the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity and ecosystems, (ii) the promotion of environmentally sound and sustainable development in the areas adjacent to protected areas, (iii) the maintenance of viable populations of species in their natural surroundings, (iv) the rehabilitation and restoration of degraded ecosystems and the recovery of threatened species, and (v) the management of the risks associated with the use and release of living modified organisms resulting from biotechnology with possible adverse impact on the environment.

            Law 102 of 1983 empowered the Prime Minister to designate certain areas to be declared as protectorates. A Prime Minister's decree defines the limits of each protected area and sets the basic principles for its management and for the preservation of its resources. Between 1983 and 1997, 18 areas have been set aside as protectorates (see Map 1). These will be dealt with in some detail in the following section, but suffice it here to mention that 7.5% of the total area of Egypt is now under protection and it is intended that this ratio will be doubled by 2017.

            The NBU has been actively engaged in commissioning national experts to write up comprehensive treatises on habitat types as well as on Egyptian representatives of taxonomic groups. The result has so far been quite rewarding. It produced several important and much-needed publications on: (i) ecosystems as seen from a geographical perspective (entitled "Habitat Diversity"), (ii) a Guide to the Mammals of Natural Protectorates in Egypt, (iii) the Reptiles of Egypt, including a brief account of all studies carried out until 1995, (iv) The Natural Protectorates of Egypt, (v) The Marine Algae of Alexandria, and (vi) A Checklist of the Flora of Egypt, (vii) Fungal Biota in Egypt, (viii) Birds Known to Occur in Egypt, and (ix) Freshwater Fishes of Egypt. Similarly inventories with particular emphasis on detailed description, local and global distribution, ecology and economic value of  nematodes and acari are being prepared for publication. More efforts are being made towards:

            * The publication of similar volumes on other groups for which no surveys have as yet been written (see Table 1).     

            * The accumulation of information on a number of taxonomic groups, to be published during 1997.

            * The synthesis of a wealth of information on the ecosystems in the northern lakes (Bardaweel, Manzala, Burullus, Idku and Mariut), and Lake Nasser; these are currently being prepared for publication.

            * As part of a major programme of biodiversity data management, the NBU has established a biodiversity data base incorporating available information about representatives of the various taxonomic groups in the country. It  can be easily expanded and updated. This data base is the nucleus of a national network connecting scientific establishments and referral collections (e.g. herbaria, botanic gardens, zoos) in universities, research centers and scientific societies (e.g. the Entomological Society of Egypt). It is also intended to render the data base available globally through the INTERNET.

            * The NBU prepared four preliminary feasibility studies concerning the establishment and management of: (i) the group of 18 protected areas, (ii) a center for the captive breeding of rare and endangered species of plants and animals, (iii) a gene bank for the preservation of genetic resources, and (iv) a natural history museum housing the major referral collections.   

            The surveys carried out by the NBU have shown that there are almost complete referral collections with numerous type specimens for some taxonomic groups of plants and animals (such as the spermatophyta, insects and birds). Other groups, for which referral collections are not complete, have been covered by detailed and critical literature search sufficient for the compilation of provisional checklists; these groups include the viruses, bacteria, fungi, marine algae and algae of the River Nile and inland lakes. A third group of major taxa (e.g. the lichens, nematoda, flat worms) are in urgent need of taxonomic surveys; see the summary of species diversity in Table 1.

            Available referral collections (of plants, insects and other groups) are not connected through a network of data bases which should guarantee some degree of co-ordination between them. Referral collections are needed for other major taxa. This highlights the need to set up some form of institution whose task would be to build the required collections, to bridge the gaps in others, the co-ordination between respective collections, and the scientific documentation of biodiversity in Egypt.     

            Threats to biodiversity in Egypt are either directly or indirectly related to human impacts. The former include excessive hunting and cutting, whereas the latter involve habitat destruction for developmental purposes and all types of pollution with refuse from industry and human settlements. Excessive hunting is endangering the very existence of several species of resident and migratory birds and a number of hoofed animals (e.g. gazelles, antelopes). Pollutants in  air, water and soil (especially in rural areas) are threatening a large number of plants and animals and have an effective impact on the environmental equilibrium. This is leading directly to the loss of some useful elements of biodiversity and a substantial increase in other harmful exotic ones, such as some species of rats, birds, the red spider and the American cotton worm.

            It is noticeable that the occurrence of many plant and animal species in Egypt is on the very edge of their geographical or ecological range of distribution. Under these conditions, such species have limited tolerance for ecological pressures. Perhaps the best example of such precarious existence is the case of corals in the Red Sea, the Gulf of Suez and the Gulf of Aqaba, where these localities represent the northernmost latitudinal limit of their distribution in the world. Any environmental changes in such a fragile ecosystem are bound to initiate a series of negative and destructive impacts on these corals. On the other hand, global warmth would extend their distribution further northward. Distribution of mangroves is comparable.

            Some animal and plant species represent relicts of a once flourishing growth in ancient periods when the environment was less severe. As conditions became decidely arid, limited populations numbers of these species remained in the natural refugial sites. For example, small populations of gymnospermous trees of Juniperus phoenicea still exist in a few hilly sites in N. Sinai (e.g. Gebel El-Maghara, Yelleg, Labni and El-Halal). Similarly, a few individual chitas can be found in the Qattara Depression of the Western Desert, but they are on the brink of extinction.

            Another form of threat to biodiversity in Egypt is the intentional and non-intentional introduction of exotic species. A famous example is the detrimental effect of the introduction of the water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) on life in the River Nile and the networks of irrigation and drainage canals throughout the country. A more recent example is the introduction of the water fern Azolla filiculoides to be used as a biological fertilizer in rice fields but it inadvertently has escaped into water courses where it seems to be wiping out a number of other native hydrophytes (e.g. Lemna spp. and Spirodela spp.). Similarly, an exotic species of freshwater crabs was introduced in aquaculture basins but it found its way into major water channels where it became a serious pest to commercial fish and to biodiversity in general.

            Since the thirties, Egypt has adopted a mojor programme of industrialization which accelerated enormously in the second half of this century. Unfortunately, environmental considerations have not been among the criteria for the determination of the type of industries nor in the choice of locations of industrial centers. Some of these centers were established in the midst of human settlements and in the Nile Valley and the Delta where they became  major sources of pollution for land and its associated network of irrigation and drainage canals. Egypt has also initiated the green revolution and adopted a policy of intensive agriculture. This entailed the widespread use of agricultural chemicals in the form of pesticides and fertilizers with residues that seeped into rural environment in general and into the irrigation and drainage canals in particular. The immense population explosion in the second half of the twentieth century necessitated the large expansion in housing sites both in rural and urban places. This inevitably led to a severe shortage in sewage systems which, in turn, became an additional source of pollution, especially in the agricultural irrigation and drainage systems.

            All these sources of pollution have led to detrimental impacts on habitats and to major changes in the biodiversity of terrestrial, atmospheric and water environments.

            On the other hand, major efforts have been made in the last two decades to improve the infrastructure throughout the country. New networks of irrigation and drainage as well as stations for refuse treatment have been built. These are beginning to show a positive effect in improving the environment. However, pollution remains a serious source of threat to the environment.

            Development programmes in Egypt include the expansion of tourism, with special emphasis on ecological tourism (i.e. where the tourist is attracted to sites with special ecological features especially along the warm coasts of the Red Sea, the Gulf of Suez and the Gulf of Aqaba). In this context, nature conservation is a basis for development. However, this important consideration needs to be strongly impressed upon development planners and investors in touristic projects. They should be made aware that conservation of corals and mangroves, with the associated multitude of organisms, coastal zone protection and the preservation of unique geological and geomorphological formations are essential to sustainable development of tourism.

            There is a recent trend towards the development of desert tourism. A number of hotels are beginning to emerge in Egyptian oases, and a number of companies have been established to promote and organize this new type of desert safari.  Here, the touristic attraction is ecological as it is directly related to the desert climate and landscape. Environmental conservation in these natural, and as yet undisturbed habitats, is a necessity for the successful development of these safaris.  The same can be said about Lake Nasser.

D. THE  NATURAL  PROTECTORATES

            The 18 natural protectorates declared so far in Egypt cover three main environmental categories: the wetlands, the deserts and the special geological formations (see Map 1). Each of these categories embrace a variety of habitat types. There follows a brief account of the individual protectorates of each category.

I . Wetland Protectorates (Marine, Lakes & Riverine)

1)   Ashtoom El Gameel (Lake Manzala)

            It was declared a protectorate by Prime Minister's decree no. 459 of 1988. It occupies the northeastern corner of Lake Manzala close to Port Said, and covers an area of about 35 km², extending southwards for 3 km into the Lake (thus including Tennees Island) and westwards for ca 7 km along the Mediterranean shore. A narrow sand bar separates this part of the Lake from the Sea. Lake Manzala is one of the important fisheries in Egypt as it contributes 50-60% of the total catch of the northern lakes. Human settlements are attracted to the area around Lake Manzala for fishing and hunting. This protectorate is regarded as an internationally important wetland owing to the fact that large numbers of birds winter in it.

2)  Zaraneek and the Bardaweel Lake

            The Bardaweel is a shallow water body in the northern coastal part of Sinai Peninsula. It extends between 31^o 3' and 31^o 14' N, 32^o 40' and 33^o 30' E and covers an area of 595 km². A narrow sand bar separates the shallow lake from the Mediterranean, with a number of openings joining them. One of these openings is found in the extreme eastern section of the lake at Zaraneek. This protectorate is an internationally important site for resident and migratory birds and has recently been recognized as a Ramsar site.  It is also among the important locations for fishing and quail hunting, which attract tourism and traditional bedouin settlements.

3)  Sabkhat Al-Ahrash Protectorate

            It has been declared a protected area by the Prime Minster's decree no. 1429 of 1985 and covers an area of about 4 km². It occupies part of the sand dune system between El-Arish and Rafah cities in Northern Sinai, close to the Mediterranean shore and falls under its climatic influence.  It has a dense growth of planted Acacia trees as well as numerous shrubs and herbs, thus serving as an important source of firewood and as rangeland for herds of the local Bedouins. The vegetation of this area is also useful in sand dune fixation, thus helping to stop sand encroachment.

4)  Ras Mohammed National Park

            It was declared a protectorate by the Prime Minister's decree no. 1068 of 1983 and occupies the southern tip of the Sinai Peninsula together with the two small islands (Tiran and Senafir) of the Tiran Straits at the southern end of the Gulf of Aqaba. The total area of this national park is about 750 km². Technical and financial assistance towards the development of this national park is generously provided by the European Community in 3 stages of 3 years each: the first started in 1989, the second in 1992, and the third in 1997. The management plan for this protectorate includes the completion of the infra-structure and a training programme for rangers and scientific staff. The Ras Mohammed National Park is remarkably rich in biodiversity as has been shown by the numerous baseline studies of its fauna and flora. Apart from rich coral growth, plant life ranges from meadows of seaweed (numerous Sargassum, Turbinaria, Ulva spp.), sea grasses (Halodule uninervis, Halophila ovalis, Halophila stipulacea, etc.) and a wide variety of halophytes inhabiting the coastal hypersaline mudflats and mangroves (Avicennia marina) to vast acreages of rangelands, wadi beds with plenty of silted catchment areas supporting large Acacia raddiana trees and various herbaceous species, and mountain slopes covered with small characteristic herbs of magnificent colours and aroma.

            Ras Mohammed National Park is the first reserve to have its infrastructures completed (visitors centre, tracks and passes, field laboratories, staff accommodation, etc. ). Rangers and staff are trained and carry their functions effectively. Management scheme is implemented, it is already receiving revenue that can sustain its operation.

5)   Nabq (Multiple Use Management Area)

    It was declared a protected area by the Prime Minister's decree no. 1511 of 1992 and covers an area of about 600 km² of the southeastern part of the Sinai Peninsula. Like the preceding protectorate, this area incorporates a variety of ecosystems ranging from the marine to the mountainous and harbours rich populations of corals, other marine animals and sea grasses. It provides food and shelter for numerous resident and migratory birds (e.g. the osprey). The shores at Nabq provide the northernmost limit of the mangrove trees in the Red Sea region. The wadis (valleys) of this protectorate are home for numerous mammals including rodents, gazelles, ibex and hyenas, together with some reptiles.

6)  Abu Galum (Multiple Use Management Area)

            This is undoubtedly one of the most picturesque parts of Egypt, where the high hills of southern Sinai steep at several points directly into the waters of the Gulf of Aqaba. It was declared a protected area by the Prime Minister's decree no. 1511 of 1992. The total area of this protectorate is about 500 km², including several mountains traversed by an intricate network of deep wadis, freshwater springs and coastal sand dunes. Diving, fishing and safari tours are the main attractions of this protectorate. Biologically, this protectorate has a rich and unique fauna and flora. The arak (Salvadora persica) community occupying most of the vast alluvial fan of wadi Kid is the largest of its kind in the country.     

7)  Lake Qaroun Protectorate

            Declared a protected area by the Prime Minister's decree no. 943 of 1989. It covers an area of 250 km², the water level is 34-43m below sea level. The Lake is nearly 40 km long, with a maximum width of 5.7 km and an average depth of 4.2m. It receives the agricultural drainage of Faiyum Governorate, and some ground water from a few natural springs in its bottom. Excess water runs further south of the Lake to the Wadi El-Rayyan Depression. Lake Qaroun is regarded as an internationally important wetland because numerous birds winter in it.

8)  Wadi El-Rayyan Protectorate

            Declared a protected area by Prime Minister's decree no. 943 of 1989. The area is a natural depression in the Western Desert, ca 18 km to the southwest of Lake Qaroun. It covers an area of 710 km² and includes 2 artificial lakes formed by the drainage water flowing from Lake Qaroun as well as agricultural drainage from the nearby farmlands of Faiyum Governorate. The protectorate has several interesting geological formations and a number of relicts from the Graeco-Roman period. The wadi also includes a number of natural springs which support a rich vegetation, more than 100 species of birds, 16 species of reptiles, 16 species of mammals (including the red fox, the fennec fox, the slender-horned gazelle), as well as a number of fish species.

            This area is also the proposed site for the Captive Breeding Centre of the present plan of action. A study is being carried out, with the financial and technical assistance of Italy, with the purpose of: (1) development of a management scheme for the reserve area, and (2) setting a design and an operation scheme for a Captive Breeding Centre.

9)  The Saluga and Ghazal Protectorate

            Prime Minister's decree no. 928 of 1986 declared these two islands, as well as all the small islands between them, in the River Nile, a protected area. These granitic islands are located 3 km north of Aswan Dam. They harbour a unique flora and are regarded as a great reservoir of rare genetic diversity, hence their special biological significance. It is proposed that the protectorate be expanded westwards into the Western Desert and to include some arid and semi-arid habitat types as well.

            This protectorate is a research site for the Aswan Faculty of Science, and is extensively visited by the Aswan schools (some 3000 visitors / year) and thus provides field site for natural history studies.

II . Desert Protectorates (Highlands, Valleys & Plains)

10)   St. Katherine Protectorate

            It was declared a protectorate by the Prime Minister's decree no. 613 of 1988. It is one of the large reserves in the country, occupying an area of 5750 km² in the central parts of the mountainous massif of southern Sinai. The St. Katherine summit (2641m) is the highest in the country, and most other summits (including Moses mountain, with its well-known religious significance) are higher than 2000m. The protectorate includes St. Katherine City and the St. Katherine Monastery which attracts a great deal of religious tourism to the area. The climate is ageeably moderate and fresh water is adequate for irrigating the monastery garden and plantations.  From the biological point of view, the area is characterized by a remarkably high concentration of endemic species of plants and animals, as well as a wealth of medicinal and poisonous plants. It represents in biogeographic terms the most western outpost of the Irano-Turanian biota.

            A scheme is being implemented, with the technical and financial assistance of the European Union, that  will provide a management scheme for this complex park, and will initiate implementation of the scheme.

11)  Wadi Allaqi Biosphere Reserve

            This is a dry river system traversing the southern part of the Eastern Desert of Egypt and joining the Nile valley at a point some 180 km to the south of Aswan. The protectorate covers an area of  ca 30,000 km².

            After the construction of the High Dam at Aswan in 1964, the water level was raised south of the Dam and formed Lake Nasser and water entered into the downstream part of Wadi Allaqi for a distance of about 80 km. When the water level in Lake Nasser subsided in subsequent years, the water retreated some 40 km downstream Wadi Allaqi, leaving behind an area covered with an appreciable layer of riverine silt suitable for the dense growth of Tamarix.

            Wadi Allaqi has been the site of extensive research programmes in fields of ecology, sociology, economics of natural resources, etc. under the leadership of the Aswan Faculty of Science. Field stations, experimental farms, research facilities, etc. are available. Research scholars from UK, USA, Canada, The Netherlands, France, Germany, etc. participate in these research programmes.

            Mineral deposits in the protectorate include gold and several types of gem stone. In 1993, this protectorate was declared by UNESCO a biosphere reserve.

12)  The Elba Protectorate

    This is by far the largest reserve in Egypt, covering an area of 35,600 km² and including 4 distinct types of ecosystem: the mangrove forests of the Red Sea coast and its numerous islands, the Doaib region, the Gebel Elba region and the Abraq region. The Gebel Elba region has large mangrove communities along the Red Sea coast which are the most important breeding sites for marine birds. The region is also home for many species of wild animals including the mountain goat, the wild ass, numerous gazelles, hares, sand foxes and the hyrax. The avifauna of this region is also well diversified. It includes many falcons, eagles, vultures, crows, sea gulls and herons. The mountains of Elba represent formation of 'mist oasis' in Egypt. Plant diversity in Elba is also remarkable; records include 396 species of flowering plants and ferns and the vegetation is particularly lush after incidents of  rainfall.

            This large and extensively diverse area awaits: a management scheme to be set and endorsed, and establishment of field facilities with qualified personnel. These are basic requirement for the operation of this protectorate.

13)  The Omayed Biosphere Reserve

            This protectorate was declared by Prime Minister's decree no. 3216 of 1996; it covers an area of about 700 km² and is located some 83 km to the west of Alexandria (or 200 km east of Matrouh) and nearly 15 km south of the Mediterranean shore. It incorporates a variety of habitat types, animal and plant communities, traditional bedouin settlements, and patterns of land use. It started as a field research site of the University of Alexandria in 1973; in 1981 it was declared a biosphere reserve by UNESCO. It has been the field site of one of the IBP desert biome (1973 - 1976), and site for ecosystem studies till now.

14) Wadi El-Assyuti Protectorate

            This relatively small protectorate covers an area of only 24 km² on the western banks of the River Nile at Assyut  in Upper Egypt. It was recently declared  by Prime Minister's decree no 710 of 1997.

15)  The Taba Protectorate

            It was declared a protected area by a Prime Minister’s decree in 1997. It occupies a stretch of desert to the southwest of the township of Taba on the eastern borders of Egypt.

            The area embraces geological and geomorphological features of scientific interest and spectacular landscape: caves, an intricate network of wadies and rocky plateaus, mini-oases and archeological sites. But this desert area presents rich biodiversity : 25 mammal species; 50 species of birds, mostly rare; 24 species of reptiles together with a rich diversity of plants. All this rich biota is threatened by over-exploitation.

            This protectorate completes the network of nature reserves in the Sinai Peninsula as they now represent the main habitat types and areas that need to be protected for their natural and cultural attributes.

III . Geological Protectorates

16)  The Hassana Dome

            This dome was declared a protected area by Prime Minister's decree no. 946 of 1989. It is a peculiar geological formation covering an area of 1 km² on the Cairo-Alexandria highway. It is part of a larger formation known as the Abu Rawash formation which dates back to the Cretaceous. The Abu Rawash formation in turn falls on the line joining similar domes of Al-Maghara mountain in Northern Sinai with those of Bahariya Oasis in the Western Desert. These formations are very useful in geological teaching and research.

17)  The Petrified Forest at Maadi

            This protectorate was declared by Prime Minister's decree no. 944 of 1989. It is situated at 18 km east of Maadi (a suburb to the south of Cairo). It is a flat expanse of gravel and sand covered with innumerable pieces of silicified tree trunks and stumps, some of which are almost intact with clearly visible annual rings. The whole formation belongs to the Oligocene (32-35 million years). These fossils are interesting records of ancient life in the area.

18)  The Cave of Wadi Sannour

            It was declared a protectorate by Prime Minister's decree no. 1204 of 1997. This cave is found in the Western Desert about 70 km southwest of Beni Suef city. It is 700m long and 15 m wide with numerous stalactites and stalagmites which formed in the Middle Eocene (ca. 60 million year) as a result of seepage of saturated solutions of calcium carbonate through the cave's roof. This protectorate derives its significance from the rarity of such formations in Egypt. It could be a major tourist attraction, and sheds light on the paleoclimate of the region.

            All these three protectorates await for management scheme to be set, field facilities to be completed and qualified personnel to be available.

PART II 

GOALS AND GUIDING PRINCIPLES

A. PRINCIPAL GOALS

            The  goal of a national strategy for  conservation of biodiversity  is to set the bases of the rational use and   sustainable development of the national natural  resources so that they remain fit for use and capable of production in ways that provide for the legitimate requirements of the present and for the basic needs of future generations. This will require harmonization  and maximum co-ordination between conservation measures and the national plans for  development in the various sectors of the economy (agriculture, industry, tourism, housing, etc.).

            Natural resources comprise: (1) Ecosystems that produce human needs (farmlands, pasturelands, fisheries and woodlands) and the biotic (plants, animals and micro-organisms) and the abiotic elements (soil, water and air) of these ecosystems. (2) Non-renewable (stored) resources (geological formations of minerals, coal, oil, natural gas, fossil groundwater). (3) Energy elements within the biosphere (solar, wind, waves and tides and geothermal). This strategy aims at conserving these natural resources and guarding against their destruction or over-exploitation so as their production be sustained at present and in the future.

            The strategy also aims at setting in clear terms the limits of social responsibility of the present generation. Sustainable development requires justice in sharing the resources and maintenance of social peace and setting ethical responsibility towards future generation, our children and grandchildren, as sustainable development and conservation of natural resources envisage long term time horizons into the future. This may be achieved through the following six goals:

            The purpose is to ensure that the management and development of natural resources be based on scientific grounds that protect their elements and their ecological processes and that guard against their deterioration. We may reiterate here the three principal objectives defined in the World Conservation Strategy (1980): (a) to maintain essential ecological processes and life support systems, (b) to preserve genetic diversity, and (c) to ensure the sustainable utilization of species and ecosystems.

            Conservation of biodiversity is part of the sustained development of natural resources and protection of the environment against degradation and pollution that impairs human health and well-being of other organisms, and that harms the ecosystems and their resources. Programmes of development depend on these resources. Scientific management of the biosphere is the means for achieving these aims. Scientific management depends on outputs of environmental research and monitoring and ensures the sustainable use of the natural resources and guards against their degradation or loss. Environmental research and monitoring include inventories of biodiversity, prospecting for the genetic and chemical structures in each species together with its autecology. These need to be set within integrated programmes of research, inventories and monitoring.

            Success in implementing programmes of research, scientific studies and inventories and environmental monitoring that provide the information for setting sustainable development on sound bases, depends on the national scientific capabilities embodied in the national science institutions (research centers and institutes, specialized science institutions, universities, consulting firms and expertise bodies).

            Development of the scientific and technological capabilities of these national science institutions comprises development of: (a) infrastructures (laboratories, experimental fields, computer and data management facilities, means for field inventories and remote-sensing surveys, etc.), (b) manpower development (research scientists and their assistants), and (c) data banks, information bases and documentation centers. These elements need to be co-ordinated within a national network of science and technology.

            The build-up of data bases that serve the objectives of conservation and the sustainable development of natural resources underlines the special importance of: (a) taxonomic studies on plant and animal species, (b) establishment and development of referral collections of these species, (c) completion of scientific and ecologic information related to every species. This may be set within the framework of a national geographic information system that integrates available information on all natural resources.  This is a national need that should be completed.

            Development of administrative institutions and implementation facilities capable of satisfying the objectives and management of actions towards these objectives, and management of the programmes and projects encompassed in the national plan of action, include:(a) development of manpower, (b) providing means of effective management, and (c) development of institutional systems (means, rules, laws, etc.) that regulate and monitor actions. All this requires provision of financial resources needed to build and develop facilities and to implement the programmes.

            National capacities combine capacities of government and those of people as individuals and as organized groups. Mobilization of these combined capacities adds to the capabilities of action and enhances efficiency of performance of these agencies and institutions. The purpose here is to ensure that a share of these capacities will be devoted to needs of conservation of natural resources. The concerned government agencies are those operating in fields of research and scientific studies that address natural resources, and those that implement projects for development and conservation of these resources. These agencies are parts of the central government and units of local governments; they are also parts of the institutions of education, training and public information.

            Mobilization of national capacities should be within the framework of wide participation in setting strategies of national actions, in outlining policies and setting plans for these actions and in contributing meaningfully in implementing these plans. This positive participation stems from conviction and awareness of the importance of the role played by each individual and every institution whether governmental or non-governmental. Actions of governmental institutions should be integrated, their complementarity is indispensable.

            Conditions for the success of this nationwide mobilization include: national plans of action should aim at harmonization among different -and often contradictory- needs, at reaching broad consensus on bases of acceptable priorities. Public good and what is good for future generations should have the heaviest weight possible in setting policies of action, which need to be within the confines of general acceptance and approval.

            Success in the effective implementation of plans for sustainable development and conservation of natural resources depends on positive participation of all people and their enthusiastic support to the execution of the programmes.  Everyone should play his role: individuals, civil bodies, public organizations and institutions. This effective participation depends on two things. (1) People should participate in setting policies and in elaboration of plans, follow stages of setting strategies and priorities of national actions. (2) Benefits which accrue from sustainable development should go to all people within the principles of social equity that do not deprive certain groups of their share, especially women and children.

            People's enthusiastic participation is much needed. It requires two conditions. (1) People must be fully cognizant of the objectives pursued, be aware of the elements of national actions and programmes, be convinced that aims are important and feasible. This underlines the roles of schools and other institutions of education, programmes of public awareness and information, the specially important role that can be played by mosques and churches in motivating people. (2) That people be organized in specialized civil bodies that mobilize public participation and guard against dissipation of people's energies.  Public institutions (political parties, trade unions, professional associations, etc.) should provide room in their activities for concern with issues of environment and conservation of natural resources.

            Included here is the promotion of societies of nature lovers who care for, or are interested in, elements of nature or conservation of biodiversity: certain species of wild terrestrial or marine animals of plants, or certain landscape or habitat types.

            The integration of national endeavour requires a legal framework that guides the steps of action, defines the responsibilities and prerogatives of institutions working in areas related to meeting the requirements of this national strategy and implementation of its approved plans and programmes. Legal instruments will define means for deterrence and/or punishment of violations of set limits.  It is true that we have a number of laws for protection of the environment at large and for conservation of natural resources and biodiversity in particular. But there is still the need for consolidating and enforcing these instruments and their statutes.

            There is need for all projects of development of natural resources to fall within the frame of a national plan for land use that is based on a national geographical information system.  This plan should receive national consensus, and be observed by all stakeholders (government agencies, non-governmental bodies and individuals).  This will ensure that there will be no conflicts nor contradictions amongst development projects carried out by public and private sectors.

            Legal instruments need -in addition to genuine public acceptance- to have means for enforcement, so that the law does not remain an important but not implemented document. The law must define who is responsible for its enforcement, and the tools for this enforcement.

            Implementation of projects emanating from national plans needs to incorporate incentives for positive participation, so that every individual and institution will play its designated role effectively. Financial incentives make participation remunerative and encourage people to share effectively in the work programs. Social incentives (prizes for distinguished actors - societal recognition of those who excel - etc.) have an important weight.

            Responsibilities of Egypt in fields of environmental protection and conservation of natural resources transcend its political boundaries to regional extents because of its geographical location and its sharing in a number of major ecological systems: the River Nile Basin, the Red Sea Basin and the Mediterranean Basin. Here, national responsibility is part of the regional responsibility. Egypt has signed and ratified a number of regional conventions for protection of the environment in the Red Sea and the Mediterranean, and is party to regional programmes related to the Nile Basin.

            Egypt's responsibility extends in these areas to the worldwide level as its geographical location puts it on the migratory highways of birds, and as a signatory of several regional and international conventions concerned with conservation of biodiversity. This means that Egypt is committed to sharing in the international endeavours that aim at conservation of biodiversity, and the observance of rules set in these conventions. Egypt has to include in its national plans the requirements of these international instruments.

            The regional and international frames for collaborative action which are set by these conventions and agreements include: (a) exchange of information and experiences, and (b) regional and international programmes of training (manpower development in fields of conservation of biodiversity). Some of these conventions provide for mechanisms of technical and financial assistance to support national programmes. Egypt is in a position to contribute to these mechanisms especially those related to regional actions and that aim at providing support to neighbouring countries. This adds a regional and international dimension to Egypt's responsibilities.

B. GUIDING PRINCIPLES

1. General Considerations

            Egypt approaches her concern with the conservation of biodiversity and the sustainable development of resources for reasons which include:

            (i) To ensure the best use of biodiversity elements, those with known economic utility and those that we do not yet know their use but future inquiries may discover their uses.

            (ii) To maintain ecological balances in the productive ecosystems so as to avoid viscous circles of ecological imbalance: incidence of new pests, deterioration of productivity, etc. Maintenance of ecological balance in pristine ecosystems is particularly necessary in nature reserves.

            (iii) To protect elements of biodiversity resources against dangers of deterioration or loss. These elements may provide future generations with valuable resources. These elements have their inherent right to survive and it is our human responsibility to observe this right.

            (iv) To protect elements of biodiversity as parts of our cultural heritage. The Pharaonic heritage is rich with murals and depictions of plants and animals, and Arabic literature (poetry) is loaded with references to names and attributes of plants and animals. The loss of papyrus and sacred ibis is a cultural loss for Egypt.

            These issues and concerns are, and should be, reflected in rules and mechanisms set for regulating use of biodiversity resourses, that is, hunting and culling, grazing, cutting (wood) and collecting (medicinal plants), etc.. Egypt is also concerned with a number of important issues related to biodiversity conservation, sustainable development and the rational use of natural resources. These include:

            (i) The issue of bio-engineered organisms and its economic, ethical and legal aspects; this is the issue of bio-safety. The Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Agriculture established by decree no. 85 of 1995 a National Committee for Biosaftey under his chairmanship. The Committee negotiated and endorsed a: Biosaftey Regulations and Guidelines for Egypt.

            (ii) The problems related to parasites and pathogens borne by wild and domestic animals, particularly transient and migratory birds, which can infect humans; this may require the furtherance of the quarantine functions.

            (iii) The complex issues related to protection of indigenous knowledge and intellectual property; the Biodiversity Convention provided for these rights among countries parties to the Convention (the right to share equitably the benefits of developing and utilizing indigenous biodiversity materials), but this principle does not commit countries that are not signatories and hence countries, like Egypt, should enact a national law which ensures the protection of national property rights as regards native biodiversity resources.

2. Principles

            In the light of these considerations, we may set the following guiding principles relevant to the national strategy and actions towards its implementations.

PART III

ELEMENTS OF PLAN OF ACTION

Elements of a national plan of action for conservation of biodiversity and sustainable development of natural resources comprise part of the national plans for development and protection of the environment. This plan has three principal sectors that are inter-related and inter-active:

a)   enabling and supporting projects,

b)   applied projects,

c)    research and monitoring projects.

A. PROGRAMMES FOR ESTABLISHING THE

ENABLING ENVIRONMENT AND OTHER

SUPPORTING MEASURES

            Establishing the basic enabling environment and other supporting measures aims at providing the essential capabilities and mechanisms for implementing efficiently the applied projects and the projects of research, monitoring and assessment; and for ensuring the proper functioning of national institutions and the promulgation of policies and legislation that support national actions and that provide it with conditions of success and resources necessary for its proper operation. The frame of these measures should provide scope for participation in regional and international collaborative programmes. Support programmes may include:

B. PROGRAMMES OF APPLIED PROJECTS

            Applied projects are the field manifestations of the objectives set by the strategy and the means of the practical actions for the conservation of biodiversity and its natural resources.  These conservation projects may have additional useful functions relating to education and public awareness, as well as research and training. Nature reserves may also provide for recreation (ecotourism). Applied projects include:

C. PROGRAMMES OF RESEARCH, MONITORING

AND ASSESSMENT

The principal functions of this sector include the build-up and completion of data and information bases that provide for planning and formulating programmes of applied projects (including choice of sites for nature reserves), and for setting processes for implementation that ensure their sustenance. Monitoring (collection of data on regular and time series bases) provides bases for follow-up of changes in environment in sequence of time. This will also provide means for assessing success or shortcoming, and will also provide a mechanism for early warning as regards damage that may harm the environment, natural resources or man. Scientific and environmental research may be part of the supporting measures, but it is also means for gaining insights and information that add to data obtained through monitoring. Both research and monitoring form the sound bases for applied projects. Within this sector room will be available for regional and international cooperation. Under this broad area the following elements may be included:

PART IV

NATIONAL ACTION PLAN

            The national programmes comprise two complementary sectors, the first concerns those projects of a central nature, while the second deals with projects at the governorate and local levels.  Implementation of both sectors will be within a system of inter-related networks and under a unified system of management. Implementation of both sectors will be within a system of inter-related networks and under a unified system of management, which should co-ordinate and direct its activities and secure the financial resources needed for its smooth and successful operation.

            Under each national programme there are a number of lines of action which can be translated into projects. All of these projects can be classified as either: (i) supporting projects, (ii) applied projects, and (iii) research and monitoring. These projects are the extension of previous efforts made in the fields of conservation of biodiversity and natural resources, which started in an orderly fashion with the introduction of Law 102 of 1983 and the ratification of the Biodiversity Convention in 1994, see Part I.

A. NATIONAL PROGRAMMES OF ACTION

1. PROGRAMME FOR INSITUTIONAL DEVELOMENT AND CAPACITY BUILDING FOR NATURE CONSERVATION

1. THE PROBLEM:

Egypt lacks a sustainable and effective system to address natural heritage management issues and has a deficit in national capacity in the field of nature conservation, which is hampering the nation’s ability to conserve and manage its unique and critical natural resources.  

The EEAA has yet to establish an appropriate institutional structure enabling the agency to fulfill its nature conservation responsibilities under Law 102/1983, Law 4/1994 and international nature conservation conventions.   Furthermore, on-line Ministries and Governorates lack capacities in natural resource management and continue to implement projects which detrimentally impact Egypt’s natural heritage.

2. DESCRIPTION OF PROGRAMME:

This programme has two components:

Component 1: Develop the structure and build the capacity of the Nature Conservation Section (NCS) within the Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs to fulfill its mandate under Law 102, Law 4 and international environmental conventions.

Component 2: Capacity building within, and networking between, other Line Ministries, Governorates and other government organizations having an impact upon Egypt’s natural heritage resources.  This would include the development of decision support systems based upon inclusion of sound environmental information.

3.  ACTIVITIES: 

Component 1:  Institution building for the Nature Conservation Section of the EEAA.

   ·   Identify gaps and recommend actions to determine the institutional and training requirements of the NCS along with the necessary linkages and coordination measures within the Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs and EEAA departments.

   ·   Launch institutional strengthening programmes in priority departments at the section.

   ·   Conduct training programmes for key personnel.

Component 2: Capacity building in natural heritage management within other government bodies at the National and Governorate levels.

   ·   Launch institution strengthening programmes in priority departments in key On-Line Ministries and Governorates which are involved in natural heritage management or are impacting natural heritage resources.

   ·   Conduct training programmes for government bodies at the National and Governorate Levels.

   ·   Monitor and advise on National and Governorate-level polices and activities that impact the natural heritage resources of Egypt and develop mechanisms to mitigate or control such activities.

   ·   Develop and implement social-economic tools and incentives for the optimal management of Egypt’s natural heritage, to help remedy the inadequate integration of natural heritage conservation considerations into Egypt’s development policies, plans, and programmes, as well as, in environmental impact assessments.

4. SCALE OF IMPLEMENATION:

The programme would be implemented at a National and Governorate levels

5. IMPLEMENATION STATUS:

An institution strengthening and capacity building programme is currently underway for the NSC by the European Union (EU).    

6. MAIN PARTICIPANTS:

EEAA, On-line Ministries, Governorates

7. ROLE OF THE EEAA:

The EEAA would be the main implementers of the project and coordinate as needed with the other participating bodies. 

2. PROTECTED AREA IDENTIFICATION AND MANAGEMENT PROGRAMME

1. THE PROBLEM:

Many of Egypt’s important and unique habitats are not represented in the nation’s Protected Area Network. Also, most of those Protected Areas that have been identified and designated under Law 102  of 1983  are still lacking proper management and infrastructure.

2. DESCRIPTION OF PROGRAMME:

This programme involves two components:

Component 1: Identify the National Protected Areas Network.  Identification involves the establishment of a system plan that assesses all existing, candidate and potential protected areas, and reviews and assesses them through field and desk studies. The Protected Area network should encompass all of the nation’s most outstanding natural heritage resources, important centers for biodiversity and a proportional representation of the country’s natural habitats.

Component 2:  Develop management and infrastructure of the Protected Areas network, including the development and implementation of management plans for existing protected areas, e.g. Elba National Park, Red Sea Islands Protected Area and Zaranik Protected Area and other priority areas to be proposed as an outcome of identification process. These plans should address the integration and development needs of local communities, the sustainable utilization of the resources which they contain, the potential for eco-tourism and their role as focal points for regional planning.

3. ACTIVITIES:

Component 1: Protected Area Identification and Prioritization

   ·   Develop and apply criteria and procedures for selecting and evaluating protected areas.

   ·   Produce a proposal for a comprehensive network of protected areas for official designation and management.

Component 2: Protected Area Management

·   Operate all the Protected Areas, through comprehensive management plans based on sound scientific, managerial and economic factors.

·   Identify and provide the full complement of well-trained and equipped staff, appropriate visitor facilities and monitoring and enforcement mechanisms for the Protectorates. 

·   Explore the opportunities for wider private sector participation in the management of Protected Areas.

·   As a model, establish a regional development Programme with Protected Area(s) (e.g. Marsa Maruh, North Sinai, Gebel Elba) as the focal point. 

·   Identify, develop and implement ecologically sound systems for tourist activities within selected protected areas.  This recognizes the unique value and experiences which Egypt’s natural protectorates can provide.  Action is required to promote certain protectorates for high-premium nature-based tourist packages.  These will be organized by the tourist industry, but controlled by EEAA, with the objective of increasing revenues from the area without minimal impact on the areas natural resources.

4. SCALE OF IMPLEMENTATION:

            The activities will be coordinated at the national level, with management and implementation at Governorate and local levels.

5. IMPLEMENTATION STATUS:

Component 1 is underway; Component 2 has been initiated (e.g. Ras Mohammed National Park) but the majority of the component is still to be undertaken.  The Italian Government is undertaking a project for the Wadi El Rayan Protected Area and the United States government is working on the Red Sea Island National Park.

6. MAIN PARTICIPANTS:

EEAA, Governorates, The Scientific Community, Ministry of Tourism, NGOs, Local Communities

7. ROLE OF THE EEAA:

The agency is legally responsible for the identification, designation and management of Protected Areas and will be the main implementing body for this programme. 

3. NATIONAL BIODIVERSITY AND NATURAL HERITAGE INVENTORY AND MONITORING PROGRAMME

1. THE PROBLEM:

While there exists a great deal of information about Egypt’s natural heritage, information is lacking in some fields and outmoded in others.  Information is essential to make qualified and informed decisions about natural resource management, in particular for setting priorities and developing sound nature conservation policies and actions. In addition, there is insufficient coordination and cooperation between all concerned parties in Egypt for the data collection, storage and analysis of biodiversity, habitat/landscape diversity and other natural heritage resources. Egypt also lacks sufficient facilities for biodiversity study and research.

2. DESCRIPTION OF PROGRAMME:

This programme with establish the necessary systems and facilitates to inventory, evaluate and monitor Egypt’s natural heritage and biodiversity.  The programme will have several components:

Component 1: The National Biodiversity Unit (NBU) will be strengthened to be a     focal point to coordinate and facilitate biodiversity research and monitoring

Component 2: There will be institution strengthening and capacity building for other organizations involved in biodiversity research and monitoring, particular at scientific collections, research institutes and universities

Component 3: A Natural History Museum will be established to promote the study and research of biodiversity either in Egypt or the region (Middle East/North Africa).

3. ACTIVITIES

Component 1: National Biodiversity Unit (NBU) at the EEAA

·   Institution strengthening for the NBU.

·   Training programmes for key personnel.

·   Establish or develop monitoring and assessment programmes for biodiversity and natural heritage resources, including:

- Biodiversity information database(s) both for scientific uses and environmental impact assessments (EIAs);

- Habitat and landscapes inventory(s);

- National natural heritage sensitivity map  (encompassing critical habitats, migratory corridors and bottlenecks, biodiversity hot-spots, etc.);

- Red data lists for fauna and flora;

- Regularly updated status statements for various resources (species, habitats, etc.).

·   Develop cooperation and coordination mechanisms between the NBU and other EEAA departments, as well other national and international bodies involved in biodiversity research and monitoring.

·   Facilitate the dissemination and exchange of information (such as through a newsletter, website, workshops, publication of periodicals, etc…).

·   Monitor and assess biotechnology advances and applications.

·   Investigate and promote opportunities for economic measures applicable to biodiversity conservation, such as bio-prospecting fees and patents.

Component 2: Capacity building among all Egyptian organizations, including NGOs, involved in biodiversity inventory and monitoring.

·   Develop the network and coordination mechanism between the organizations involved in biodiversity research and monitoring in Egypt and abroad.

·   Institution strengthening for key organizations involved in biodiversity research and monitoring in Egypt, including training in biodiversity inventory and monitoring, particularly within the scientific community.

·   Provide small grants to institutes, universities and NGOs to support and promote biodiversity research and monitoring.   Research areas include:

- Surveys of species and habitat richness;

- Habitat and species conservation and management;

- Taxonomy and species variation;

- Chemical screening of species;

- Socio-economic studies.

Component 3:  Establishment of  a National Natural History Museum.

·   Continue support for reference collections until such time as the museum has been established.

·   Produce the necessary pre-project studies to establish a National or Regional Natural History Museum.

·   Establish the institution and its collections.

·   Develop training, education and research programmes for the facility. 

4. SCALE OF IMPLEMENTATION: 

National, Governorate and local levels.

5. IMPLEMENTATNION STATUS

Partly ongoing Programme, but requires considerable strengthening.  UNEP with GEF funding has been providing support for projects at the National Biodiversity Unit, including for the National Biodiversity Country Study, Data Bank and Strategy. The Academy of Science has devised feasibly studies for the Natural History Museum.

6. MAIN PARTICIPANTS

National Biodiversity Unit, Academy of Science and Scientific Research, Universities, National Institutes, Zoological and Botanical Gardens, NGOs.

7. ROLE OF THE EEAA: 

The EEAA will implement Component 1 and 2 and will cooperate with the Academy of Science in Component 3.

4. NATIONAL HUNTING MANAGEMENT PROGRAMME

1. THE PROBLEM:

Wildlife utilization for the most part is unregulated in Egypt and excessive numbers of wild animals are being hunted.  Due to over-hunting and fishing,  the populations of many species are declining with some species on the verge of extirpation from the country. 

Unlike in other nations, there is no comprehensive system for hunting management in Egypt. Many organizations have responsibilities for hunting management, with overlapping roles and insufficient coordination between the different bodies.  There is also insufficient trained personnel, facilities and other resources necessary to regulate hunting and fishing.  Little revenue is generated from hunting regulation and the funds raised are not re-invested back into the management and protection of wildlife and their habitats.

2. DESCRIPTION OF PROGRAMME:

This programme will consist of the development of a comprehensive system of wildlife management in Egypt with sustainable management and financial systems.

3. ACTIVITIES:

·   Establish Wildlife Management Department at the EEAA and Wildlife Management Units in priority Governorates and On-line Ministries.

·   Launch institution building Programmes for the EEAA, Governorate Units and participating On-line Ministries involved in hunting and fishing management.

·   Training for key personnel in wildlife management, particularly in hunting and fishing regulation.

·   Develop a comprehensive system for hunting and fishing management in Egypt, including polices, regulations and licenses, along with coordination and enforcement mechanisms with other concerned organizations and economic instruments to insure sustainable revenue generation whenever possible for:

-Sport hunting and fishing by Egyptian  nationals and foreign tourists;

- Traditional hunting activities, particularly for birds (ie. quail, songbirds, waterbirds, falcons);

- Domestic and import/export trade in wildlife and wildlife products;

- Commercial fishing;

- Pest control;

- Research and scientific collections.

·   Revise and straighten existing legislation, drafting new legislation if necessary.

·   Devise and implement a system for CITES management in Egypt.

·   Develop and support wildlife research and monitoring programmes.

·   Establish a hunting management data base.

·   Establish a number of hunting reserves, which are scientifically managed to ensure the sustainable utilization of wildlife resources within them.

4. SCALE OF IMPLEMENTATION:

National, Governorate and Local Levels.

5. IMPLEMENTATION STATUS:

The EEAA with assistance from the Danish government produced a hunting management study which identifies wildlife management requirements for the country.

5. MAIN PARTICIPANTS:

EEAA, Ministry of Interior, Ministry of Defense, Egyptian Wildlife Service (EWS) and the General Authority for the Development of Fisheries Resources (GDFR)/Ministry of Agriculture, Governorates, Shooting Clubs.

6. ROLE OF THE EEAA:

The EEAA will take the lead role and other agencies and organizations will implement components as appropriate.

5. NATURAL HERITAGE RESOURCES MANAGEMENT PROGRAMME

1. THE PROBLEM:

There is an absence of comprehensive legal protection for natural heritage resources outside the Protected Areas.  Much of the country’s habitats, wildlife and landscapes are being destroyed and degraded at an alarming rate due insufficient protection, monitoring and management. 

2. DESCRIPTION OF PROGRAMME:

This is a programme to address the adverse impacts of current activities on, and to develop protection measures more specific for the management of, natural heritage resources outside Protected Areas (i.e. not under the auspices of Law 102) and will cover issues not addressed by other programmes. This should include development of plans and legislation for landscape and habitat conservation, as well as initiatives for the conservation of endangered species.

3. ACTIVITIES:

·   Identify and devise legal and other measures and initiatives to fill problems and gaps in the protection and management of Egypt’s natural heritage outside the protected areas.

·   Produce and implement management plans, as well as other measures for the conservation of critical habitats outside the Protected Area network.

·   Promote the establishment of green spaces within and around urban areas, which can be managed so as to have recreational and educational as well as wildlife value.

·   Produce and implement management plans for endangered species that are designed to halt and reverse their decline.

·   Establish captive breeding and reintroduction programmes for priority endangered species.

·   Establish or develop within an academic or scientific institution of a Middle Eastern/North African Regional seed bank of international standards of indigenous flora (both feral and wild strains), as an alternative reservoir of genetic material and as a controlled and regulated source for commercial research.

4. SCALE OF IMPLEMENTATION:

The programme will be implemented at the national and Governorate levels.

5. IMPLEMENTATION STATUS:

There are only a few on-going species conservation initiatives in Egypt, including an IUCN project to assess the status of Cheetah, as well as a Darwin Initiative project to conserve Mediterranean sea turtles.  

6. MAIN PARTICIPANTS:

EEAA, Ministry of Agriculture agencies, Governorates, Universities, NGOs.

7. ROLE OF EEAA:

The EEAA will take a lead role in some components and will coordinate others.

6. INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS COMPLIANCE PROGRAMME

1. THE PROBLEM:

Egypt has signed a number of international and regional agreements for the conservation of natural habitats and species.  To date, there has been insufficient compliance of the provisions of the conventions in Egypt.  For most agreements, the country has yet to establish the necessary framework to implement the conventions on a sustainable basis. Furthermore, compliance has been hampered by the low awareness of the conventions and their importance in Egypt.

2. DESCRIPTION OF PROGRAMME:

Establish the necessary institutions, legislation and other mechanisms to comply with Egypt’s international and regional obligations dictated by the conventions to which it is signatory, specifically:

- Rio (Biodiversity) )                                     

- Ramsar (Wetland protection)        

- CITES (Trade in wildlife)               

- Bonn (Migratory species

- Red Sea (marine and coastal)

- Barcelona (marine and coastal)     

- Specially Protected Area Protocol  

- World Heritage (natural and cultural heritage)

- Man in the Biosphere Programme

- African-Eurasian Waterfowl Agreement                                                                                       

3. ACTIVITIES:

·   Identify the requirements to insure effective compliance of international and regional agreements in Egypt.

·   Establish the necessary framework along with the necessary legislation, policies and other mechanisms to comply with convention provisions.

·   Establish or strengthen the necessary institutions to implement the conventions.

·   Conduct training to improve convention compliance.

·   Support monitoring, assessment and other initiatives as mandated under the conventions.

·   Develop and implement education and public awareness activities to encourage support for and compliance of the agreements.

4. SCALE OF IMPLEMENTATION:

The programme will be primarily implemented at the national levels and as needed at the Governorate and local levels.  

5. IMPLEMENTATION STATUS:

There are a few on-going initiatives to improve convention compliance; such as development of the National Biodiversity Strategy as required under the Biodiversity Convention. 

6. MAIN PARTICIPANTS:

EEAA, Line Ministries

7. ROLE OF THE EEAA:

The EEAA will have the lead role as the national body responsible for international environmental conventions according to Law 4/1994; however, meeting compliance obligations will only be successful if it is coordinated with other Miniseries, the Governorates, the private sector and local communities. 

7. PUBLIC AWARENESS, EDUCATION AND INVOLVMENET PROGRAMME FOR NATURAL HERITAGE

1. THE PROBLEM:

Low public awareness and appreciation of nature heritage is an underlying factor contributing to the unsustainable and excessive use of these resources both by government and the private sector.  Education and information providers have limited knowledge about Egypt’s natural heritage and its importance.  Furthermore, there is a lack of high-quality and interesting information about the rich and unique diversity of nature that exists either nationally or locally. 

The private sector is among the primary users of natural heritage resources, but undervalues and over exploits or inappropriately utilizes these resources largely as a result of lack of awareness.  While the government is increasingly looking towards businesses, NGOs and local communities to assist in environmental protection, these bodies lack sufficient capacity and expertise in natural resource management.  There is also insufficient private sector initiatives to serve as models for the sustainable and wise use of natural heritage resources.  

 2. DESCRIPTION OF PROGRAMME:

This programme will consist of a number of components:

Component 1: Build public awareness capabilities within the nature conservation section of EEAA.

Component 2:  Improve the quantify and quality of information about natural heritage and capacities of information distributors to disseminate this information.

Component 3: Integrate natural heritage and biodiversity conservation into the national education curriculum and build education institutions and teaching capacities in this field.

Component 4:  Increase awareness and appreciation in the business, NGO and local community about natural heritage issues and develop the capacities of these bodies to support initiatives for the sustainable and wise use of natural heritage resources.

3. ACTIVITIES:

Component 1: EEAA Conservation Education and Public Awareness Department

·   Develop the department’s capacities to create and implement conservation and public awareness programmes

·   Produce education and public awareness materials for the department on natural heritage issues, such as information packages and a newsletter or magazine.

·   Establish a data base and network to disseminate information to national and international organizations.

·   Devise and implement education programmes, including a mobile unit(s) and exhibits, for the Natural Protectorate, National Biodiversity Unit and programmes related to key natural heritage resource management issues, such as Hunting Management, International Conventions, etc.

Component 2:  Capacity Building Programme for Information Distributors for Natural Heritage Conservation

·   Establish a service to provide technical support, training and other materials (video film, photographs) related to natural heritage to information distributors.

·   Conduct workshops and training with the main distributors of information in Egypt, e.g. written and broadcast media, government information units, religious leaders, etc.. for dissemination of information relating to natural heritage issues.

·   Produce printed and audio visual materials and information packs for the key information distributors focusing on Egypt’s natural heritage.

·   Develop regular television/radio show(s) about natural heritage issues for  national broadcast. 

Component 3: Natural Heritage Education in the National Curriculum

·   Develop education programmes and materials about natural heritage and biodiversity conservation for the national curriculum (higher, secondary and primary schools).

·   Develop teaching modules and teacher’s training programmes with the Ministry of Education.

·   Provide training, exchange programmes and grants to university professors in applied fields related to biodiversity/nature conservation.

·   Develop out-reach programmes for schools and universities, such as field trips and mobile units to generate awareness about Egypt’s natural heritage.

·   Support existing and new university field stations to provide students with hands on training in applied research on biodiversity/nature conservation.

·   Establish a National Institute for Natural Resource Management at an Egyptian University that would provide undergraduate and postgraduate training in natural resource management, including in wildlife management, protected area management, and the ecological components of environmental impact assessments.

·   Provide support to the Conservation Education Center at the Giza Zoological Garden, the Natural History Museum for Children and other similar public facilities to strengthen their abilities to conduct education programmes about biodiversity and natural heritage conservation.

Component 4:  National Capacity Building Programme for the Private Sector

·   Conduct workshops and training programmes for businesses, NGOs and local communities. Establish exchange programmes for business, NGOs and local communities to see other country’s experiences.

·   Develop demonstration projects to provide business, NGOs and local communities with hands-on-training experience and establish models in the sustainable and wise use of natural resources.

·   Provide small grants for business, NGO and local community wildlife and habitat conservation initiatives, including for projects related to women and biodiversity.

4. SCALE OF IMPLEMENTATION: 

The programme will be primarily implemented at the national and local levels.

5. IMPLEMENATION STATUS: 

Some components of this project are on-going.  Danida has a Environmental Education Programme with the EEAA.  EU is also supporting Education and Public Awareness programmes.   Small grants are available to NGOs in fields related to biodiversity.   

6. MAIN PARTICIPANTS: 

EEAA, Ministry of Information, Ministry of Education, Ministry of Higher Education. 

7. ROLE OF THE EEAA: 

The EEAA will be the lead organization in this project and will coordinate and liaison with other bodies as necessary.

8. NATIONAL WETLANDS MANAGEMENT PROGRAMME

1. THR PROBLEM:

Egyptian wetlands are among the most important and productive ecosystems in the country.  The Nile River provides the nation with nearly all of its water resources.  The Nile and the lakes also provide the country with its fisheries, an important source of protein and livelihood.  In addition, Egyptian wetlands are one of the richest ecosystems in the country in biodiversity and are considered internationally important staging, wintering and breeding areas for waterbirds. 

Egypt’s wetlands are subject to a variety of man-made threats which are leading to the degradation of this invaluable national resource.  The northern lakes have been substantially reduced in size as a result of land reclamation. Nearly all wetlands in Egypt are polluted with industrial, domestic and agricultural drainage water not only leading to changes in the ecology of the lakes, but causing health problems in surrounding communities.  Over fishing and hunting is also prevalent at most wetlands in Egypt.  While the problems facing Egyptian wetlands has received national and international attention, insufficient action has been taken for the management and preservation of the wetlands and their resources.

2. THE DESCRIPTION OF PROGRAMME:

This programme will seek to establish a national framework for wetlands management and develop and implement integrated management plans for priority wetlands.  

3. ACTIVITIES:

   ·   Establish and strengthen a special unit at the Nature Conservation Section of the EEAA to devise, coordinate and follow-up on wetland management as specified under the Ramsar Convention.

   ·   Produce and implement a National Wetland Action Plan that will address the necessary legislative, institutional and policy actions along with coordination measures for improved management and conservation of Egyptian wetlands.

   ·   Devise and implement management plans at priority wetlands (e.g. Lake Manzala, Lake Burullus, Lake Bardawil).

   ·   Develop a system and initiatives for wetland research and monitoring.

   ·   Launch projects to abate pollution of Egyptian wetlands.

   ·   Develop and support projects to improve management of fisheries, hunting and other natural resources from Egyptian wetlands.

   ·   Build national capacity in wetland management through training programmes, workshops and seminars.

   ·   Launch national public awareness campaigns to increase understanding and appreciation of Egyptian wetlands and encourage the management and conservation of this important national resource.

4. SCALE OF IMPLEMENTATION:

The programme will be implemented at the national, Governorate and local levels.

5. IMPLEMENTATION STATUS:

There are some on-going initiatives related to wetland management, including at Wadi El Rayan and Lake Qarun in El Fayoum, Lake Mariut and Lake Nasser.  Most of the waste water treatment projects under construction will have positive consequences for Egyptian wetlands.  The RAMSAR Conservation Fund and Dutch government have supported some limited training in wetland management.

6. MAIN PARTICIPANTS:

EEAA, Line Miniseries (e.g. General Authority for the Development of Fisheries Resources (GADFR) and other Ministry of Agriculture agencies, Ministry of Public Works and Water Resources, Tourist Development Authority), Governorates.  

7. ROLE OF EEAA:

The EEAA will take a lead role in some components and will coordinate others.

9. NATIONAL MARINE AND COASTAL MANAGEMENT PROGRAMME

1. THE PROBLEM

The marine environment is the richest in Egypt in terms of biodiversity and encompasses some of the nation’s most important natural resources. However, Egypt is engaging in haphazard, uncoordinated development along most of the country's coastlines without sufficient consideration to environmental consequences.  This is leading to the rapid degradation of the country’s marine and coastal resources jeopardizing future sustainable return from these resources.

In addition, there is no clear responsibility for the management of fisheries (both commercial and sport fishing), nor is there appropriate control over the exploitation by pharmaceutical and research bodies of marine resources, such as soft corals, invertebrates. 

2. PROJECT DESCRIPTION: 

This programme has two components:

Component One: Establish a dynamic process for national comprehensive coastal zone (land and sea) sustainable utilization planning, encompassing economic and social issues, and based upon strategic planning activities undertaken at the national level and upon detailed physical planning and management undertaken by each of the coastal Governorates.

Component Two: Sustainable use of marine and coastal resources is to be achieved through a combination of scientific research, appropriate quotas and regulations, active monitoring and enforcement, and pilot projects allowing exploitation of certain resources by local people.

 3. ACTIVIITIES:

Component 1: Action Planning for Marine and Coastal Resources Management

·   Produce Governorate Coastal and Marine Sensitivity Development Plans for each coastal Governorate (11 in total), to set out policies and proposals for development and other use of the land, including environmental protection. 

·   Identify those coastal and marine areas which should be Natural Protectorates and produce and implement appropriate management plans.

·   In parallel with the Governorate plans, produce complementary and integrated plans and guidelines on the regional level (e.g. Mediterranean, Red Sea and Sinai coastlines) for each sector having activities along the coast and offshore waters (i.e. Tourism, Transportation, Petroleum, Fisheries, etc.)

·   Through cooperative dialogue, integrate the Governorate and Regional Sector Plans to build up a Comprehensive Sensitivity and Management Plan for Coastal and Marine Resources of Egypt.

·   Operate, maintain, review and upgrade the plans.

·   Execute priority projects to demonstrate and ensure compliance to the plans.

·   Fully operationalise the system whereby high-quality Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) are undertaken for all new establishments along the Egyptian coastline which will impact upon the environment.

·   Strength the marine and coastal zone monitoring system and data base to ensure compliance and regular updating of the plans. 

Component Two:  Marine and Coastal Resources Protection and Utilization

·     Ensure that all critical and sensitive marine and coastal habitats (e.g. mangroves, coral reefs, sea grass beds) are identified and mapped.

·     Develop and implement a Coastal Fisheries Management Plan, which would include the setting and enforcement of appropriate quotas for fish and other marine species based on sound science, inspection of fishing gear and other harvesting or extraction methods and the establishment and monitoring of exclusion zones.

·     Develop and implement action plans for the conservation of globally threatened marine and coastal species (particularly those listed under international agreements).

·     Establish and maintain a marine and coastal resources data base, including information on feeding, breeding and nurseries area of fish and other wildlife populations, e.g. sea turtles, birds, etc.

·     Launch demonstration projects for the sustainable use of marine and coastal resources, integrating local people, NGOs and communities.

4.   SCALE OF IMPLMENTATION:  

National and Governorate Level

5.   IMPLEMENATION STATUS:  

The EIA system is gradually being strengthened and operationalized; some development plans and sectional plans are being produced but in an uncoordinated and haphazard manner.

6.   MAIN PARTICIPANTS:

Key governmental stakeholders include: EEAA, Tourism Development Authority, Ministry of Petroleum, Ministry of Marine Transport, Ministry of Industry, Suez Cannel Authority, Port and Lighthouse Authority, Shore Protection Authority/Ministry of Public Works and Water Resources, Ministry of Defense, Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, General Authority for the Development of Fisheries Resources/Ministry of Agriculture, Governorates,  There are also many NGOs and other organizations involved in coastal zone management. 

 7. ROLE OF EEAA:

            Executing components for the Natural Protectorates.  Overall coordination and leading role with the large number of institutions involved in the management of Egypt’s coastline, particularly regarding the development and implementation of broad coastal management policy.  

10.  NATIONAL ARID LANDS MANAGEMENT PROGRAMME

1. THE PROBLEM:

While over 95% of Egypt is desert, there is little awareness and appreciation of this important national resource.  Egypt’s deserts have significant reserves of oil, gas, minerals and other non-renewable natural resources.  The deserts are also rich in biodiversity harboring restricted range and globally threatened species.  This vast wilderness area with its spectacular scenery and numerous cultural heritage sites is becoming an increasing important resource for tourism.  Only a small percentage of the population resides in the desert, but these peoples still depend heavily on native flora for grazing and fodder for domestic livestock, fuel, building materials, herbs, remedial medicines and other products.

Most desert regions in Egypt are coming under threat as a result of rapid and inappropriate development.  Many areas having high natural heritage value and importance for biodiversity are being destroyed and degraded as a consequence of uncontrolled tourism, land reclamation, quarrying and solid waste dumping.  Over grazing and collection of vegetation is a problem in most rangelands threatening the livelihood of the local population.  This and inappropriate land reclamation techniques is causing desertification in sensitive areas, such as along the North Coast. Over hunting of wildlife in the desert has led to severe declines in populations of a number of species, particularly large mammals.  Cultural heritage sites in the desert due to their remoteness are being vandalized and degraded.

2. THE DESCRIPTION OF PROGRAMME:

This programme will seek to establish a national framework for the management of arid lands and will develop and implement integrated management plans for desert areas which are valuable rangelands and important natural and cultural heritage sites.  

3. ACTIVITIES:

   ·   Produce a National Arid Land Management Action Plan that will address the necessary legislative, institutional and policy actions along with coordination measures for improved management and conservation of desert regions.

   ·   Devise and implement integrated management plans for desert areas which are priority rangelands or have important natural and cultural heritage sites.

   ·   Launch projects to mitigate and abate degradation of key arid lands (e.g. over grazing, haphazard solid waste dumping).

   ·   Develop and support other projects to improve natural resource management and alleviate property in desert regions (e.g. providing alternative fuel sources).

   ·   Develop and support arid lands research and monitoring programmes.

   ·   Build national capacity in arid lands and rangeland management through training programmes, workshops and seminars.

   ·   Launch national public awareness campaigns to increase understanding and appreciation of deserts and encourage the management and conservation of this important national resource.

4.   SCALE OF IMPLEMENTION:

The programme will be implemented at the national, Governorate and local levels.

5.   IMPLEMENTION STATUS:

There are an on-going natural resource management projects by the GTZ-EEAA and World Bank in the North Coast near Marsa Matruh.  The EU projects for South Sinai Protectorates, particularly for St. Catherine’s addresses many of these issues. 

6.   MAIN PARTICIPANTS:

EEAA, Key Line Miniseries (Agriculture, Petroleum, Industry and Minerals, etc..), Governorates.  

7. ROLE OF EEAA:

The EEAA will take a lead role in some components and will coordinate others.

11. NATURE-BASED TOURISM: MANAGEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT

1. THE PROBLEM:

Nature-based tourism is a rapidly growing market in Egypt, particularly in South Sinai, the Red Sea and the Western Desert. This economic activity has a direct impact on the country's biological and natural resources and depend totally on these resources.

It is estimated that 12% of all tourism in Egypt is directed to the Red Sea alone and the share is growing.   Insufficient regulation of marine tourism and lack of adequate infrastructure is damaging the natural resources which attract the tourists, in particular the coral reefs of the Red Sea. There continues to be low awareness and appreciation of marine conservation and ecotourism in the business community and the general public.

Desert (safari) tourism is also a fast growing activity in Egypt. At present most desert safari tours in Egypt are not ecologically sound. Insufficient regulation of desert tourism is causing the destruction and degradation of natural habitats, landscapes, cultural heritage sites and other resources.

2.   DESCRIPTION OF PROGRAMME:

The programme will promote environmentally sound, sustainable tourism through the development of a national system to manage nature-based tourism and projects to demonstrate “wise use”, ecotourism  practices and technologies, in particular at Governorates where there is considerable on-going nature-based tourism. (i.e. South Sinai, Red Sea, Western Desert). The programme is comprised of three components:

Component 1: Addresses the specific needs of the marine-based tourism.

Component 2: Addresses the specific need of desert (safari) tourism.     

Component 3: Promotes the concept of ecotourism.

 3. ACTIVITIES:

Component 1: Marine Tourism Management

   ·   EEAA and the Ministry of Tourism to coordinate the production of a nationwide Marine Tourism Sustainable Development Strategy, to identify gaps and recommend potential actions for the development of environmentally sustainable tourism.

   ·   Devise industry guidelines and licensing procedures for dive companies and schools, boats and yatchs and marine sport fishing.

   ·   Establish an enforcement and monitoring system to insure compliance to the regulations.

   ·   Strengthen and build capacity in the institutions responsible for overseeing implementation of the management system.

   ·   Launch projects to establish infrastructure and management programs for marine tourism at key sites to mitigate negative environmental impacts.

   ·   Design and implement training programmes to sensitize tourism companies to marine conservation and ecotourism.

   ·   Mobilize NGO participation to facilitate the implementation of the management programs.

  ·   Develop environmental education and awareness campaigns to generate awareness about the value of marine conservation, ecotourism and encourage public support for management programmes. 

Component 2: Desert Tourism Management

   ·   EEAA and the Ministry of Tourism to work together to coordinate the production of a National Desert Tourism Sustainable Development strategy, to identify gaps and recommend potential actions to develop environmentally sound, sustainable desert tourism in Egypt.

   ·   Establish guidelines and licensing procedures for the desert tourism industry.

   ·   Develop an enforcement and monitoring system to insure compliance to the regulations.

   ·   Strengthen and build capacity in the institutions responsible for overseeing implementation of the system.

   ·   Launch projects to establish infrastructure (i.e. tracks and sign posting) and  management programmes at key natural and cultural heritage sites to mitigate negative environmental impacts.

   ·   Design and implement training programmes to sensitize tourism companies to desert  conservation and ecotourism and improve compliance to the guidelines.

   ·   Mobilize local community and NGO participation to facilitate the implementation of the management programmes.

   ·   Develop environmental education and awareness campaigns to generate awareness about desert conservation, ecotourism and encourage support for management programmes.

 Component 3:Ecotourism Development and Promotion

   ·   Identify opportunities arising from successful ecotourism developments for the exchange of information and experience, so as to make conventional tourism more ecotourism oriented.

   ·   Develop an Ecotourism Action Plan for the Region/Governorate to inventory ecotourism resources and recommend actions to develop ecotourism in an environmentally sound and sustainable fashion.

   ·   Conduct training programmes for service providers (ie. guides, drivers, boat captains, etc...) about biodiversity and natural heritage resources and promote “wise use” management practices.

   ·   Provide small grants/loans to local communities (i.e. Bedouins) to establish or develop establishments or services catering to ecotourists.

4. SCALE OF IMPLEMENTATION:

Implementation of the project will take place at national, Governorate and local levels.  For example, the development of industry guidelines will be implemented at the national level where as the projects will be implemented at the Governorate and local levels.

5. IMPLEMENTATION STATUS:

This programme should complement and not duplicate on-going programmes, including the EU South Sinai Protected Area project, GEF Red Sea project and USAID Sustainable Tourism Project. Existing projects will be assessed to form the basis of the national management system and gaps will be filled not currently addressed by other projects.

6. MAIN PARTICIPANTS:

EEAA, TDA, Supreme Council for Antiquities (SCA), Ministry of Defense, Governorates, Tourism Companies, NGOs, local communities, donor community.

7. ROLE OF THE EEAA:

EEAA will largely have a coordinating role in this programme, but will implement components as appropriate, such as those related to Natural Protectorates.

B. INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS

1. Preface

            Throughout its long history, the Egyptian government showed interest in certain species of plants and animals and protected them either as sacred (e.g. the sacred ibis, the sacred scarab, etc.) or in the pretext of governmental monopoly (e.g. the papyrus plant used in the paper industry). This interest continued until the recent times when the Agricultural Law (Law 53 of 1966) was passed, in which Section 3 dealt with the protection of useful birds, wild animals, etc. This Law empowered the Minister of Agriculture to compile lists of protected animals and plants, and to issue decrees prohibiting harm to all species in certain areas (ecosystem conservation). In 1979, the Minister of Agriculture issued decree 349 to establish the Egyptian Wildlife Service to act as the national instrument in this respect.

            Within the authority of Governors, some decrees were issued prohibiting the hunting of birds and wild animals in certain regions, especially the rare and endangered species.  Thus, in 1980 the Governors of N. Sinai and the Red Sea issued decrees for wildlife protection and control of hunting in both Governorates. Furthermore, the Governor of N. Sinai declared the eastern part of Bardawil Lake a natural protectorate, while the Governor of Matrouh prohibited hunting wild species in his Governorate.

            In 1982, the Presidential decree 631 established the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA) to be affiliated to the Cabinet of Ministers. This was followed in 1983 by the introduction of Law 103 concerning the natural protectorates. It aimed at the conservation of units ecosystems with their plant and animal communities, or to the conservation of units of natural formations with special scientific or cultural significance. This Law empowered the Prime Minister to define the limits of each protectorate as well as the scientific bases of its management.  EEAA became the organization which prepares the preliminary studies underlying the Prime Minister's decisions and follows up their implementation.  Between 1983 and 1997, the Prime Minister issued  decrees establishing 18 protectorates, which represent most of the major ecological zones of Egypt, as has already been outlined in Part 1 of this document.

            It is worth noting that the task of most sectors of EEAA is policy-making, planning and supervising implementation of plans carried out by governmental and non-governmental organizations. The EEAA also defines the rules and regulations for the conservation of nature and natural resources. Through the Nature Conservation Sector, the EEAA and the Ministry of Environmental Affairs assumes executive functions for the management, administration and supervision of protected areas within the context of policies and plans formulated by the Nature Conservation Sector on behalf of the EEAA. The EEAA can also assume executive functions to resolve issues detrimental to protected areas but originating in areas adjacent to declared natural protectorates. In order to fully meet the demands of its mandate, the Nature Conservation Sector of the EEAA must have sufficient institutional capacity to enable it to plan, administer, manage and implement all aspects of its mandate defined by Law 102 of 1983, its associated Decrees and relevant International Conventions specific to biodiversity and the conservation of nature and natural resources. The EEAA seeks the assistance of local administrations (governorate in whose territory there is a protected area) and scientific institutions (the university in the same governorate).

            When Egypt signed the Biodiversity Convention in 1992, EEAA established the National Biodiversity Unit (NBU) as part of the Central Directorate of Nature Conservation. The NBU is a unit with special character: it is capable of inviting the scientific expertise of governmental and non-governmental organizations to carry out the studies related to biodiversity and its conservation.

2. Management of National Institutions

            When the national strategy and the programmes of action set out in it for biodiversity conservation are adopted, an institutional arrangement will be required for the management of these numerous and varied programmes, whose scope extends into the work of many sectors of the central government, universities, research centers, local administrations in governorates and provinces, NGOs and local communities.

            When the national strategy is adopted, it becomes a part of the national plan for comprehensive and sustainable development. It would receive the appropriate share of resources as can be decided by the authorities of national planning. Adoption of the action programmes is part of the adoption of the national strategy.

3. National Institutional Arrangement

            In its executive capacity as the national body responsible for the conservation of nature, natural resources and biodiversity, the Nature Conservation Department of the Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs and the EEAA will develop capacity to coordinate actions and policies with other concerned Line Ministry’s, Government Authorities and Agencies.

            A coordinating instrument is required to:

This organization arrangement may consist of 3 components:

            The first: a leading body combining high political standing with spiritual leadership to inspire successful performance. It is proposed that the national programme should have a Supreme Council under the chairmanship of the First Lady of Egypt and with the membership of:

            The Chairman of the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency will be the Secretary General of the Supreme Council. This Council shall guide and oversee the implementation of the National Programme of Action for Biodiversity Conservation.

            Establishment of this organization arrangement shall be effected by a Presidential decree. The statute comprising in detail the mechanisms of performance shall be issued by a Prime Ministerial decree.